Click AQUI for the further
Spanish Verbs (Gramatical)
Accidents of a Verb
A verbal accident is defined as one of the changes of form that a verb can undergo. Spanish verbs have five (5) accidents. Every verb changes according to the following:
Person and number
Spanish verbs are conjugated in three persons, each having a singular and a plural form. In some varieties of Spanish, such as the one in Río de la Plata Region, a special form of the second person is used.
Since Spanish is a "pro-drop language", the subject pronoun is often omitted.
First Person
The grammatical first person refers to the speaker ('I'). The first person plural refers to the speaker together with at least one other person.
- (Yo) hablo. 'I speak.'
- (Nosotros) hablamos. 'We speak.' (Used when referring to a group that includes at least one male.)
- (Nosotras) hablamos. 'We speak.' (Used when referring to a group that is composed entirely of females.)
Second person
The grammatical second person refers to the addressee, the receiver of the communication ('you'). Spanish has different pronouns (and verb forms) for 'you', depending on the relationship, familiar or formal, between speaker and addressee.
Singular Forms
- (Tú) hablas. Familiar singular. Used when addressing someone who is of close affinity: a member of the family, a close friend, a child, a pet. This is also the form used to address the deity.
- (Vos) hablás. Familiar singular. Generally used the same as tú. Its use is restricted to some areas of Hispanic America. In areas where tú and vos are both used, vos is used to denote a closer affinity.
- (Usted) habla. Formal singular. Used when addressing a person respectfully or addressing a person of some social distance. Although this is a second-person pronoun, it uses third-person verb forms (and object pronouns, and possessives) because it developed as a contraction of vuestra merced ('your mercy').
Plural Forms
- (Vosotros) habláis. Used when addressing people who are of close affinity: members of the family, close friends, children, pets. This form is only used in Spain, the Philippines,[3] and Equatorial Guinea.
- (Ustedes) hablan. Used when addressing people respectfully or addressing people of some social distance. Like usted, it uses third-person verb forms, for the same reasons. In Spanish America, the form ustedes serves as the second-person plural for both familiar and formal situations.
Third Person
The grammatical third person refers to a person or thing other than the speaker or the addressee.
Singular Forms
- (Él) habla. 'He/it speaks.' Used for a male person or a thing of masculine (grammatical) gender.
- (Ella) habla. 'She/it speaks.' Used for a female person or a thing of feminine (grammatical) gender.
Plural Forms
- (Ellos) hablan. 'They speak.' Used for a group of people or things that includes at least one person or thing of masculine (grammatical) gender.
- (Ellas) hablan. 'They speak.' Used for a group of people or things that are all of feminine (grammatical) gender.
Mood
Grammatical mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. In Spanish, every verb has forms in three moods.
- Indicative mood: The indicative mood, or evidential mood, is used for factual statements and positive beliefs. The Spanish conditional — although semantically it expresses the dependency of one action or proposition upon another — is generally considered a "tense" of the indicative mood, because, syntactically, it can appear in an independent clause.
- Subjunctive mood: The subjunctive mood expresses an imagined or desired action in the past, present or future.
- Imperative mood: The imperative mood expresses direct commands, requests, and prohibitions. In Spanish, using the imperative mood may sound blunt or even rude, so it is often used with care.
Verbal Tense
The tense of a verb indicates the time when the action occurs. It may be in the past, present or future.
Impersonal or Non-Finite Forms of the Verb
The Spanish non-finite verb forms refer to an action or state without indicating the time or the person. Spanish has three impersonal forms:
Infinitive
The infinitive is generally the form that is found in dictionaries. This form corresponds to the English "base-form" or "dictionary form". The ending of the infinitive is the basis of the names given in English to the three form classes of Spanish verbs:
- "-ar verbs" (primera conjugación).
Examples: hablar ('to speak'); cantar ('to sing'); bailar ('to dance').
- "-er verbs" (segunda conjugación).
Examples: beber ('to drink'); leer ('to read'); comprender ('to understand').
- "-ir verbs" (tercera conjugación).
Examples: vivir ('to live'); sentir ('to feel'); escribir ('to write').
Gerund
Although, in English grammar, "gerund" refers to the -ing form of a verb used as a noun, in Spanish the term refers to a verb form that behaves more like an adverb.
- For -ar verbs, the ending is -ando.
Examples: hablando ('speaking'); cantando ('singing'); bailando ('dancing').
- For -er verbs, the ending is -iendo.
Examples: bebiendo ('drinking'); leyendo [with spelling change] ('reading'); comprendiendo ('understanding').
- For -ir verbs, the ending is also -iendo.
Examples: viviendo ('living'); sintiendo [with stem-vowel change] ('feeling'); escribiendo ('writing').
Past participle
The past participle corresponds to the English -en or -ed form:
- For -ar verbs, the ending is -ado.
Examples: hablado ('spoken'); cantado ('sung'); bailado ('danced').
- For -er verbs, the regular ending is -ido.
Examples: bebido ('drunk'); leído [requires accent mark] ('read'); comprendido ('understood').
- For -ir verbs, the regular ending is also -ido.
Examples: vivido ('lived'); sentido ('felt'); hervido ('boiled').
The past participle, ending invariably in -o, is used following a form of the auxiliary verb haber to form the compound or perfect: (Yo) he hablado ('I have spoken'), (Ellos) habían hablado ('They had spoken'), etc.
When the past participle is used as an adjective, it agrees with the noun that it modifies, e.g. una lengua hablada en España ('a language spoken in Spain').
The past participle, similarly agreeing with the subject of ser or estar, can be used to form, respectively, the "true" passive voice (e.g. Los platos fueron preparados en la mañana 'The dishes were prepared in the morning') or the "passive of result" (e.g. Los platos ya están preparados 'The dishes are already prepared').
Voice
In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.).
When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the passive voice.
Verbal Aspect
Verbal aspect marks whether an action is completed (perfect), a completed whole (perfective), or not yet completed (imperfective).
- Perfect: In Spanish, verbs that are conjugated with haber ('to have [done something]') are in the perfect aspect.
- Perfective: In Spanish, verbs in the preterite are in the perfective aspect.
- Imperfective: In Spanish, the present, the imperfect, and the future tenses are in the imperfective aspect.
Verbal Conjugations in Spanish
See Spanish conjugation for a set of conjugation tables.
In this page, verb conjugation is illustrated with the verb hablar ('to talk, to speak').
The indicative
The indicative mood has five simple tenses, and each one of them has a corresponding perfect form. In older classifications, the conditional tenses were considered part of an independent conditional mood. Continuous forms (such as estoy hablando) are usually not considered part of the verbal paradigm, though they often appear in books addressed to English-speakers who are learning Spanish. Note that modern grammatical studies would count only the simple forms as "tenses", and the other forms as products of tenses and aspects.
Simple tenses (tiempos simples)
The simple tenses are the forms of the verb without the use of a modal or helping verb. The following are the simple tenses and their uses:
Present (presente)
The present tense is formed with the endings shown below:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs (primera conjugación) | -er verbs (segunda conjugación) | -ir verbs (tercera conjugación) |
yo | -o | -o | -o |
tú | -as | -es | -es |
vos | -ás | -és | -ís |
él / ella / usted | -a | -e | -e |
nosotros / nosotras | -amos | -emos | -imos |
vosotros / vosotras | -áis | -éis | -ís |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -an | -en | -en |
Uses of the present indicative
This tense is used to indicate the following:
- Actual Present - This expresses an action that is being done at the very moment.
María habla con Juan por teléfono. ('María is speaking with Juan on the telephone').
- Habitual Present - This expresses an action that is regularly and habitually being done.
María llega al campo todos los sábados. ('María goes to the countryside every Saturday.')
- Atemporal Present - This expresses general truth that are not bounded by time.
Dos más dos son cuatro. ('Two plus two equals four.')
Los planetas giran alrededor del sol. ('The planets revolve around the sun.')
- Historical Present - This expresses an action that happened in the past but accepted as a historical fact.
Fernando Magallanes descubre las Filipinas el 15 de marzo de 1521. ('Ferdinand Magellan discovered the Philippines on 15 March 1521.')
- An immediate future - This expresses an action that will be done in the very near future with a high degree of certainty.
Este junio, viajo a España. ('This June, I'm travelling to Spain.')
- Imperative Value - In some areas of Spain and Hispanic America, the present can be used (with an exclamatory tone) with an imperative value.
¡Ahora te vas y pides disculpas al señor Ruiz! ('Now go and ask pardon from Mr. Ruiz!')
Imperfect (pretérito imperfecto)
The imperfect is formed with the endings shown below:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
yo | -aba | -ía | -ía |
tú / vos | -abas | -ías | -ías |
él / ella / usted | -aba | -ía | -ía |
nosotros / nosotras | -ábamos | -íamos | -íamos |
vosotros / vosotras | -abais | -íais | -íais |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -aban | -ían | -ían |
Uses of the imperfect
This tense is used to express the following:
- A habitual action in the past - Expresses an action that done habitually in an indefinite past. This use does not focus on when the action ended.
Cuando era pequeño, hablaba español con mi abuela. ('When I was young, I used to speak Spanish with my grandmother.')
- An action interrupted by another action - Expresses an action that was in progress when another action took place.
Tomábamos la cena cuando Eduardo entró. ('We were having dinner when Eduardo came in.')
- General description of the past - Expresses a past setting, as, for example, the background for a narrative.
Todo estaba tranquilo esa noche. Juan Eduardo miraba el partido de fútbol con su amigo Alejandro. Comían unas porciones de pizza. ('Everything was calm that night. Juan Eduardo was watching the football match with his friend Alejandro. They were eating some slices of pizza.')
Preterite (pretérito indefinido)
The preterite is formed with the endings shown below:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
yo | -é | -í | -í |
tú | -aste(s) | -iste(s) | -iste(s) |
vos | -aste(s) | -iste(s) | -iste(s) |
él / ella / usted | -ó | -ió | -ió |
nosotros / nosotras | -amos | -imos | -imos |
vosotros / vosotras | -asteis | -isteis | -isteis |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -aron | -ieron | -ieron |
Uses of the preterite
This tense is used to express the following:
- An action that was done in the past - Expresses an action that is viewed as a completed event. This use is often accompanied by adverbial expressions of time such as ayer, anteayer, la semana pasada
Ayer, encontré la flor que tú me diste. ('Yesterday, I found the flower that you gave me.')
- An action that interrupts another action - Expresses an event that happened (and was completed) while another action was taking place.
Tomábamos la cena cuando entró Eduardo. ('We were having dinner when Eduardo came in.')
- A general truth - Expresses a past relationship that is viewed as finished.
Las Filipinas fueron parte del Imperio Español. ('The Philippines were part of the Spanish Empire.')
Future (futuro simple or futuro imperfecto)
The future tense uses the entire infinitive as a stem. The following endings are attached to it:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | - ir verbs |
yo | -é | -é | -é |
tú / vos | -ás | -ás | -ás |
él / ella / usted | -á | -á | -á |
nosotros / nosotras | -emos | -emos | -emos |
vosotros / vosotras | -éis | -éis | -éis |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -án | -án | -án |
Uses of the future
This tense is used to express the following:
- A future action - Expresses an action that will be done in the future.
El año próximo, visitaré Buenos Aires. ('Next year, I shall/will visit Buenos Aires.')
- Uncertainty or Probability - Expresses inference, rather than direct knowledge.
¿Quién estará tocando a la puerta? — Será Fabio. ('Who (do you suppose) is knocking at the door? — It must be Fabio.' or 'Who will that be knocking at the door? — That'll be Fabio.' as this use of the future tense also occurs in English, see Future Tense, Relation among tense, aspect, and modality implications of "will" and "going to")
- Command, prohibition or obligation
No llevarás a ese hombre a mi casa. ('Do not bring that man to my house.' or more accurately 'You will not bring that man to my house.' as this form is also used to assert a command, prohibition or obligation in English)
- Courtesy
¿Te importará encender la televisión? ('Would you mind turning on the television?')
Compound tenses (tiempos compuestos)
All the compound tenses are formed with haber followed by the past participle of the main verb. Haber changes its form for person, number, etc., while the past participle remains invariable, ending with -o regardless of the number or gender of the subject.
Present perfect (pretérito perfecto)
In the present perfect, the present indicative of haber is used as a modal, and it is followed by the past participle of the main verb. In most of Spanish America, this tense has virtually the same use as the English present perfect.
E.g.: Te he dicho mi opinión. ('I have told you my opinion.')
In most of Spain the tense has an additional use, to express a past action or event that is contained in an unfinished period of time, or that has effects in the present:
Este mes ha llovido mucho, pero hoy hace buen día. ('It rained a lot this month, but today is a fine day.')
Past perfect or pluperfect (pretérito pluscuamperfecto)
In this tense, the imperfect form of haber is used as a modal, and it is followed by the past participle of the main verb.
- (yo) había + past participle
- (tú) habías + past participle
- (él / ella / usted) había + past participle
- (nosotros / nosotras) habíamos + past participle
- (vosotros / vosotras) habíais + past participle
- (ellos / ellas / ustedes) habían + past participle
Uses This form is used to express the following:
- A past action that occurred prior to another past action.
e.g.: Yo había esperado tres horas cuando él llegó. ('I had been waiting for three hours when he arrived.')
Past anterior (pretérito anterior)
This tense combines the preterit form of haber with the past participle of the main verb. It is very rare in spoken Spanish, but it is sometimes used in formal written language, almost entirely limited to subordinate (temporal, adverbial) clauses — thus it is usually introduced by temporal conjunctions such as cuando, apenas, en cuanto, etc. It is used to express an action that ended immediately before another past action.
- (yo) hube + past participle
- (tú) hubiste + past participle
- (él / ella / usted) hubo + past participle
- (nosotros / nosotras) hubimos + past participle
- (vosotros / vosotras) hubisteis + past participle
- (ellos / ellas / ustedes) hubieron + past participle
E.g.: Cuando hubieron llegado todos, empezó la ceremonia ('When everyone had arrived, the ceremony began.')
E.g.: Apenas María hubo terminado la canción, su padre entró. ('As soon as Maria had finished the song, her father came in.')
This tense is often replaced by either the preterit or the pluperfect, with the same meaning.
E.g.: Apenas María terminó la canción, su padre entró.
E.g.: Apenas María había terminado la canción, su padre entró.
Future perfect (futuro compuesto)
The future perfect is formed with the future indicative form of haber followed by the past participle of the main verb.
- (yo) habré + past participle
- (tú) habrás + past participle
- (él / ella / usted) habrá + past participle
- (nosotros / nosotras) habremos + past participle
- (vosotros / vosotras) habréis + past participle
- (ellos / ellas / ustedes) habrán + past participle
e.g.: Habré hablado. ('I shall/will have spoken.')
This tense is used to indicate a future action that will be finished right before another future action.
e.g.: Cuando yo llegue a la fiesta, ya se habrán marchado todos. ('When I arrive at the party, everybody will have left already.')
The conditional
Simple conditional (condicional simple or pospretérito)
As in the case of the future tense, the conditional uses the entire infinitive as a stem. The following endings are attached to it:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
yo | -ía | -ía | -ía |
tú / vos | -ías | -ías | -ías |
él / ella / usted | -ía | -ía | -ía |
nosotros / nosotras | -íamos | -íamos | -íamos |
vosotros / vosotras | -íais | -íais | -íais |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -ían | -ían | -ían |
Uses of the conditional
This tense is used to express the following:
- Courtesy - Using this mood softens a request, making it more polite.
E.g.: Señor, ¿podría darme una copa de vino? ('Sir, could you give me a glass of wine?')
- Polite expression of a desire (using querer).
E.g.: Querría mirar la película esta semana. ('I would like to see the film this week.')
- In a then-clause whose realization depends on a hypothetical if-clause.
Si yo fuera/fuese rico, yo viajaría a Sudamérica. ('If I were rich, I would travel to South America.')
- Speculation about past events (the speaker's knowledge is indirect, unconfirmed, or approximating).
E.g.: —¿Cuantas personas asistían a la inauguración del Presidente? — No lo sé; habría 5.000. ('How many people attended the President's inauguration? — I do not know; there must have been 5,000.')
- A future action in relation to the past - Expresses future action that was imagined in the past.
E.g.: Cuando era pequeño, pensaba que me gustaría ser médico. ('When I was young, I thought that I would like to be a doctor.')
- A suggestion.
E.g.: Yo que tú, lo olvidaría completamente. ('If I were you, I would forget him completely.')
Conditional perfect or compound conditional (condicional compuesto or antepospretérito)
This form refers to a hypothetical past action.
E.g.: Yo habría hablado si me hubieran/hubiesen dado la oportunidad ('I would have spoken if they had given me the opportunity.')
The imperative
The imperative mood has three specific forms, corresponding to the pronouns: tú, vos and vosotros (tú and vos are used in different regional dialects, vosotros only in Spain); these forms are only used in positive expressions, not the negative ones. The subjunctive supplements the imperative in all other cases (the negative, and the conjugations corresponding to the pronouns nosotros, él/ella, usted, ellos/ellas and ustedes).
The imperative can also be expressed in three other ways[4]:
- Using the present or future indicative to form an emphatic command: Comerás la verdura (You will eat the vegtables).
- The first person plural imperative ("Let us...") can also be expressed by Vamos a + infinitive: ¡vamos a comer!.
- Indirect commands with que: Que lo llame el secretario (Have the secretary call him).
Affirmative imperative (imperativo positivo)
The positive form of the imperative mood in regular verbs is formed by removing the infinitive ending and adding the following:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
tú | -a | -e | -e |
vos | -á | -é | -í |
usted | -e | -a | -a |
nosotros / nosotras | -emos | -amos | -amos |
vosotros / vosotras | -ad (-ar) | -ed (-er) | -id (-ir) |
ustedes | -en | -an | -an |
Negative imperative (imperativo negativo)
For the negative imperative, the adverb no is placed before the verb, and the following endings are attached to the stem:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
tú | -es | -as | -as |
vos | -á | -é | -í |
usted | -e | -a | -a |
nosotros / nosotras | -emos | -amos | -amos |
vosotros / vosotras | -éis | -áis | -áis |
ustedes | -en | -an | -an |
The singular imperative tú coincides with the third-person singular of the indicative for all but a few irregular verbs. The plural vosotros is always the same as the infinitive, but with a final -d instead of an -r in the formal, written form; the informal spoken form is the same as the infinitive. The singular vos drops the -r of the infinitive, requiring a written accent to indicate the stress. These actual imperative forms are in bold to distinguish them from those that are really just subjunctive forms.
Beginner's rule:
- To conjugate something that is positive in the imperative mood for the tú form (which is used most often), conjugate for your tú form and drop the 's'.
- To conjugate something that is negative in the imperative mood for the tú form (which also is used most often), conjugate in the yo form, drop the 'o', add the opposite tú ending (if it is an -
The Positive Command Forms of the verb comer
Subject | Command | Gloss | Remarks |
tú | ¡Come! | 'Eat!' | General form of the informal singular. |
vos | ¡Comé! | 'Eat!' | Used in the Ríoplatense Dialect and much of Central America; not accepted by the Real Academia Española. |
usted | ¡Coma! | 'Eat!' | Formal singular. |
nosotros / nosotras | ¡Comamos! | 'Let us eat!' | Used as an invitation. |
vosotros / vosotras | ¡Comed! | 'Eat!' | normative plural for informal address, though its use is becoming rare. |
vosotros / vosotras | ¡Comer! | Eat! | Common plural used in Spain for informal address, though not admitted by the Real Academia Española. |
ustedes | ¡Coman! | 'Eat!' | General plural formal command; used also as familiar plural command in Spanish America. |
Negative command forms of the verb comer
Subject | Command | Gloss | Remarks |
tú | ¡No comas! | Do not eat! | General form of the Informal Singular |
vos | ¡No comas! | Do not eat! | Used in the voseo areas; the only form accepted by the Real Academia Española |
vos | ¡No comás! | Do not eat! | Used by the general voseante population; not accepted by the Real Academia Española |
usted | ¡No coma! | Do not eat! | Formal Singular |
nosotros / nosotras | ¡No comamos! | Let us not eat! | Used as a suggestion |
vosotros / vosotras | ¡No comáis! | Do not eat! | Informal Plural in Spain |
ustedes | ¡No coman! | Do not eat! | General Negative Plural Formal Command; Used also as Familiar Plural Command in Hispanic America |
The pronominal verb comerse
Subject | Command | Gloss | Remarks |
tú | ¡Cómete ...! | Eat! | Used emphatically |
vos | ¡Comete ...! | Eat! | Used in the Ríoplatense Dialect; not accepted by the Real Academia Española |
usted | ¡Cómase ...! | Eat! | Formal Singular |
nosotros / nosotras | ¡Comámonos ...! | Let us eat! | the original -s ending is dropped before the pronoun nos is affixed to prevent cacophony or dissonant sound |
vosotros / vosotras | ¡Comeos ...! | Eat! | The original -d ending is dropped before the pronoun os is affixed to prevent cacophony or dissonant sound |
vosotros / vosotras | ¡Comeros ...! | Eat! | Colloquial plural used in Spain for informal address though not admitted by the Real Academia Española |
ustedes | ¡Cómanse ...! | Eat! | General Plural Formal Command; Used also as Familiar Plural Command in Spanish America |
The verb ir
Subject Pronoun | Imperative Form | Gloss | Remarks |
tú | ¡Ve! | Go! | General form of the Singular Imperative |
vos | ¡Andá! | Go! | This is used because the general norm in the voseo imperative is to drop the final '-d' and add an accent. However, if we do this, the form will be 'í'. |
usted | ¡Vaya! | Go! | Same as the subjunctive form |
nosotros / nosotras | ¡Vamos! | Let's go! | More common form |
nosotros / nosotras | ¡Vayamos! | Let's go! | Prescribed form, but rarely used |
vosotros / vosotras | ¡Id! | Go! | Prescribed form |
vosotros / vosotras | ¡Ir! | Go! | Colloquial form |
ustedes | ¡Vayan! | Go! | Formal Plural; also Familiar in Hispanic America |
The pronominal verb irse is irregular in the second person plural normative form, because it does not drop the -d or the -r:
- ¡idos! (vosotros) – Go away! (plural for informal address, recommended by the Real Academia Española but extremely uncommon)
- ¡iros! (vosotros) – Go away! (common in Spain, not admitted by the Real Academia Española)
The subjunctive
The subjunctive mood has a separate conjugation table with fewer tenses. It is used, almost exclusively in subordinate clauses, to express the speaker's opinion or judgment, such as doubts, possibilities, emotions, and events that may or may not occur.
Simple tenses (tiempos simples)
Present subjunctive (presente de subjuntivo)
The present subjunctive of regular verbs is formed with the endings shown below:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | - ir verbs |
yo | -e | -a | -a |
tú | -es | -as | -as |
vos | -és | -ás | -ás |
él / ella / usted | -e | -a | -a |
nosotros / nosotras | -emos | -amos | -amos |
vosotros / vosotras | -éis | -áis | -áis |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -en | -an | -an |
[edit] Imperfect subjunctive (imperfecto de subjuntivo)
The imperfect subjunctive can be formed with either of two sets of endings: the "-ra endings" or the "-se endings", as shown below. In Spanish America, the -ra forms are virtually the only forms used, to the exclusion of the -se forms. In Spain, both sets of forms are used, but the -ra forms predominate there also.
[edit] Imperfect subjunctive, -ra forms
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
yo | -ara | -iera | -iera |
tú / vos | -aras | -ieras | -ieras |
él / ella / usted | -ara | -iera | -iera |
nosotros / nosotras | -áramos | -iéramos | -iéramos |
vosotros / vosotras | -arais | -ierais | -ierais |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -aran | -ieran | -ieran |
[edit] Imperfect subjunctive, -se forms
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
yo | -ase | -iese | -iese |
tú | -ases | -ieses | -ieses |
él / ella / usted | -ase | -iese | -iese |
nosotros / nosotras | -ásemos | -iésemos | -iésemos |
vosotros / vosotras | -aseis | -ieseis | -ieseis |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -asen | -iesen | -iesen |
Future subjunctive (futuro (simple) de subjuntivo)
This tense is no longer used in the modern language, except in legal language and some fixed expressions. The following endings are attached to the preterite stem:
Pronoun subject | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
yo | -are | -iere | -iere |
tú / vos | -ares | -ieres | -ieres |
él / ella / usted | -are | -iere | -iere |
nosotros / nosotras | -áremos | -iéremos | -iéremos |
vosotros / vosotras | -areis | -iereis | -iereis |
ellos / ellas / ustedes | -aren | -ieren | -ieren |
E.g.: Cuando hablaren,.. ('Whenever they might speak,...')
Compound tenses (tiempos compuestos)
In the subjunctive mood, the subjunctive forms of the verb haber are used with the past participle of the main verb.
Present perfect subjunctive (pretérito perfecto de subjuntivo)
E.g.: Cuando yo haya hablado... ('When I have spoken,,,,')
Pluperfect subjunctive (pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo)
E.g.: Si yo hubiera hablado... or Si yo hubiese hablado... ('If I had spoken...')
Future perfect subjunctive (futuro compuesto de subjuntivo)
Like the simple future subjunctive, this tense is no longer used in the modern language.
E.g.: Cuando yo hubiere hablado... ('When I shall have spoken...')
Observations:
- The present subjunctive is formed from the stem of the first person present indicative of a verb. Therefore, for an irregular verb like salir with the first person salgo, the present subjunctive would be salga, not *sala.
- The choice between present subjunctive and imperfect subjunctive is determined by the tense of the main verb of the sentence.
- The future subjunctive is rarely used in modern Spanish and mostly appears in old texts, legal documents, and certain fixed expressions such as venga lo que viniere ("come what may").
Continuous Tenses
In Spanish grammars, "continuous tenses" are not formally recognized as in English. Though the imperfect expresses a relative continuity compared to the perfect (for example te esperaba 'I was waiting for you'), the continuity of an action is usually expressed by a verbal periphrasis (perífrasis verbal). For example: estoy leyendo 'I am reading'. However, one can also say sigo leyendo 'I am still reading'; voy leyendo 'I am slowly but surely reading'; ando leyendo 'I am going around reading', and others.
Irregular verbs
A considerable number of verbs change the vowel e in the stem to the diphthong ie, and the vowel o to ue. This happens when the stem vowel receives the stress. These verbs are referred to as stem-changing verbs. Examples include pensar 'to think' (pienso 'I think'), sentarse 'to sit' (me siento 'I sit'), empezar 'to begin' (empiezo 'I begin'), volver 'to return' (vuelvo 'I return'), and acostarse 'to go to bed' (me acuesto 'I go to bed').
Virtually all verbs of the third conjugation (-ir), if they have -e- or -o- in their stem, undergo a vowel-raising change whereby e changes to i and o changes to u, in some of their forms (for details see Spanish irregular verbs). Examples include pedir 'to ask for' (pide 'he/she asks for'), competir 'to compete' (compite 'he/she competes'), and derretirse 'to melt' (se derrite 'it melts').
The so-called "I-Go" verbs add a medial -g- in the first person singular, present tense (making the Yo [or I] form end in -go — for example, tener 'to have', tengo 'I have'; venir 'to come', vengo 'I come'). These verbs are often irregular in other forms as well.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/
NARKOBA
a. PENGERTIAN NARKOBA
Narkoba adalah zat kimia yang dapat mengubah keadaan psikologi seperti perasaan, pikiran, suasana hati serta perilaku jika masuk ke dalam tubuh manusia baik dengan cara dimakan, diminum, dihirup, suntik, intravena, dan lain sebagainya. Narkoba juga disebut dengan ‘NAPZA’ ( narkotika, psikotropika, dan zat aditif lainnya ).
Gambar 1. Narkoba (drugs )
Semua istilah ini, baik ‘narkoba’ ataupun ‘napza’, mengacu pada kelompok senyawa yang umumnya memiliki risiko kecanduan bagi penggunanya. Menurut pakar kesehatan,narkoba sebenarnya adalah senyawa-senyawa psikotropika yang biasa dipakai untuk membius pasien saat hendak dioperasi atau obat-obatan untuk penyakit tertentu. Namun kini persepsi itu disalah artikan akibat pemakaian di luar peruntukan dan dosis yang tidak semestinya.
Narkoba
Narkotika Psikotropika Bahan ( zat )
aditif lainnya
Narkoba dapat digolongkan menjadi 3 golongan, yaitu :
a. Narkotika zat yang berasal dari tanaman atau bukan tanaman baik sintetis maupun semi sintetis yang dapat menyebabkan penurunan sampai menghilangkan rasa nyeri dan dapat menimbulkan ketergantungan. Narkotika sintesis dapat menyebabkan depresan, stimultan, dan halusinogen.
b. Psikotropika zat baikalamiah maupun sintetis bukan narkotika yang berkhasiat psikoaktif melalui pengaruh selektif pada susunan saraf pusat yang menyebabkan perubahan khas pada aktifitas mental dan prilaku.
c. Zat aditif bahan lain bukan narkoba atau psikotropika, yang akan menyebabkan penggunanya mengalami ketergantungan.
b. EFEK DAN DAMPAK PEMAKAIAN NARKOBA
Dari segi efek dan dampak yang ditimbulkan pada para pemakai narkoba dapat dibedakan menjadi 5 golongan, antara lain :
1. Upper
Upper adalah jenis narkoba yang membuat si pemakai menjadi aktif seperti sabu-sabu, ekstasi dan amfetamin.
Upper adalah jenis narkoba yang membuat si pemakai menjadi aktif seperti sabu-sabu, ekstasi dan amfetamin.
2. Downer
Downer adalah golongan narkoba yang dapat membuat orang yang memakai jenis narkoba itu jadi tenang dengan sifatnya yang menenangkan, seperti obat tidur ( hipnotik ) dan obat anti rasa cemas.
Downer adalah golongan narkoba yang dapat membuat orang yang memakai jenis narkoba itu jadi tenang dengan sifatnya yang menenangkan, seperti obat tidur ( hipnotik ) dan obat anti rasa cemas.
3. Halusinogen
Halusinogen adalah napza yang beracun karena lebih menonjol sifat racunnya dibandingkan dengan kegunaan medis.
Halusinogen adalah napza yang beracun karena lebih menonjol sifat racunnya dibandingkan dengan kegunaan medis.
4. Stimulan
Stimultan merupakan salah satu efek dari narkoba yang bisa mengakibatkan kerja organ tubuh seperti jantung dan otak bekerja lebih cepat dari kerja biasanya sehingga mengakibatkan seseorang lebih bertenaga untuk sementara waktu kemudian lelah , melayang, mengantuk, tertekan, depresi, meningkatnya aktivitas ( psikoaktif ) dan cenderung membuat seorang pengguna lebih senang dan gembira untuk sementara waktu.
5. Adiktif
Seseorang yang sudah mengkonsumsi narkoba biasanya akan
ingin dan ingin lagi karena zat tertentu dalam narkoba mengakibatkan
seseorang cenderung bersifat pasif , karena secara tidak langsung
narkoba memutuskan syaraf-syaraf dalam otak yang lama-kelamaan akan menyebabkan kematian.
ingin dan ingin lagi karena zat tertentu dalam narkoba mengakibatkan
seseorang cenderung bersifat pasif , karena secara tidak langsung
narkoba memutuskan syaraf-syaraf dalam otak yang lama-kelamaan akan menyebabkan kematian.
c. CIRI-CIRI PENGGUNA NARKOBA
Ciri-ciri umum orang yang menggunakan narkoba, antara lain :
Ø Suka menyendiri,
Ø Melalaikan tanggung jawab,
Ø Emosional,
Ø Sering membangkang,
Ø Sering berkata bohong,
Ø Pola tidur tidak wajar dan sering mengantuk atau tidur di pagi hari,
Ø Malas mengurus diri,
Ø Sensitif, mudah tersinggung, dan mudah marah,
Ø Berjalan sempoyongan karena gangguan koordinasi saraf pusat,
Ø Bertindak brutal,
Ø Suka mencuri,
Ø Prestasi sekolah anjlok, suka membolos, dan dijauhi teman.
d. JENIS-JENIS NARKOBA
Banyak jenis-jenis narkoba yang selama ini sudah disalah gunakan contohnya heroin, morfin, kokain, ganja, shabu-shabu, dan sebagainya.
¨ Heroin
Heroin atau diamorfin merupakan jenis alkaloid. Heroin adalah obat ilegal dan sangat aditif yang diproses dari morfin yang merupakan bahan alami yang diambil dari kelopak tanaman Poppy Asia ( opium ). Terlepas dari semua opiat-opiat, heroin yang bereaksi paling cepat karena heroin sangat aditif dan bereaksi paling cepat ketika disalahgunakan. Jika sering dikonsumsi, maka ketergantungan pun akan berlangsung cepat.
Dampak-dampak bagi pengguna aopium antara lain :
· Menimbulkan kesibukan sendiri
· Menimbulkan semangat
· Merasa waktu berjalan lambat
· Pusing dan kehilangan keseimbangan
· Timbul masalah kulit disekuitar mulut dan kulit
Gambar 2. Poppy Asia ( Opium ) Gambar 3. Heroin
Heroin murni umumnya berbentuk bubuk putih, sedangkan heroin tidak murni berwarna putih keabuan ( street heroin ). Zat ini sangat mudah menembus otak sehingga bereaksi lebih kuat daripada morfin.
Heroin disalahgunakan dalam beberapa cara, antara lain dengan menyuntikan heroin yang akan langsung masuk kedalam aliran darah, selain itu dengan cara menghirup atau menghisap heroin melalui hidung, yang dimana heroin itu akan diserap melalui paru-paru lalu masuk kedalam aliran darah.
Ciri-ciri khusus pada pengguna heroin :
· Kejang-kejang,
· Mual, keringat dingin, dan demam,
· Hidung dan mata selalu berair,
· Hilang nafsu makan dan cairan tubuh berkurang,
· Terjadi perubahan tingkah laku dan suka berhalusinasi,
· Hilang rasa sakit dan timbul rasa senang yang luar biasa,
· Denyut nadi melambat,
· Tekanan darah menurun,
· Otot-otot melemas,
· Pupil mengecil,
· Tidak percaya diri,
· Suka menyendiri,
· Melalukan tindak kriminal, dan,
· Susah membuang air besar, jantung berdebr-debar, timbul warna kemerahan dan gatal di sekitar hidung, serta gangguan kebiasaan tidur.
¨ Morfin
Morfin adalah alkaloid analgesik yang sangat kuat dan merupakan agen aktif utama yang ditemukan pada opium. Morfina bekerja langsung pada system saraf pusat untuk menghilangkan rasa sakit. Efek samping morfin antara lain adalah :
· penurunan kesadaran,
· euforia,
· rasa kantuk,
· lesu,
· penglihatan kabur,
· mengurangi rasa lapar,
· merangsang batuk, dan
· meyebabkan konstipasi.
Gambar 4 dan 5. Morfin
Morfin menimbulkan ketergantungan tinggi dibandingkan zat-zat lainnya. Ciri-ciri khusus pengguna morfin antara lain :
· muntah-muntah,
· merasa sakit yang luar biasa,
· seluruh tubuh lemah,
· otot-otot mengeras,
· hilang nafsu makan,
· insomnia, dan
· selalu dihantui oleh mimpi buruk.
¨ Kokain
Kokain merupakan alkaloid yang berasal dari tanaman Erythroxylon coca. Kokain merupakan senyawa sintetis yang memicu metabolisme sel menjadi sangat cepat. Zat ini berasal dari Peru dan Bolivia. Jenis tanamannya berbentuk belukar. Daunnya biasa dikunyah oleh penduduk setempat untuk mendapatkan “efek stimulan”. Saat ini kokain masih digunakan sebagai anestetik lokal, khususnya untuk pembedahan mata, hidung dan tenggorokan, karena efek vasokonstriksif-nya juga membantu.
Gambar 6. Kokain
Kokain diklasifikasikan sebagai suatu narkotika, bersama
dengan morfina dan heroina karena efek adiktif.
dengan morfina dan heroina karena efek adiktif.
Ciri-ciri khusus pengguna kokain antara lain :
· denyut jantung cepat,
· agitasi psikomotor ( gelisah ),
· euphoria atau rasa gembira berlebihan,
· rasa harga diri meningkat,
· banyak bicara,
· kewaspadaan meningkat,
· Kejang,
· pupil (manik mata) melebar,
· tekanan darah meningkat,
· berkeringat atau merasa dingin,
· mual dan muntah,
· mudah berkelahi,
· psikosis,
· perdarahan diotak, dan
· penyumbatan pembuluh darah.
¨ Ganja
Ganja merupakan tumbuhan penghasil serat. Akan tetapi, tumbuhan ini lebih dikenal karena kandungan narkotikanya, yaitu tetrahidrokanabinol ( THC ) yang dapat menyebabkan pengguna merasakan rasa senang yang berkepanjangan tanpa sebab
( euphoria ). Semua bagian tanaman ganja mengandung kanaboid psikoaktif.
Gambar 7. Ganja
Cara menggunakan ganja biasanya dipotong, dikeringkan, dipotong kecil-kecil, lalu digulung menjadi rokok. Asap ganja mengandung tiga kali lebih banyak karbonmonoksida daripada rokok biasa.
Ciri-ciri khusus pengguna ganja antara lain:
· rasa senang dan bahagia,
· santai dan lemah,
· acuh tak acuh,
· mata memerah,
· nafsu makan meningkat,
· mulut kering,
· pengendalian diri kurang,
· sering menguap dan ngantuk,
· kurang konsentrasi, dan
· depresi.
¨ Shabu-shabu ( Metamfetamin )
Shabu-shabu adalah psikotropika yang sangat berbahaya karena potensi ketergantungannya kuat. Zat ini berbentuk kristal bening seperti butiran gula, tetapi ukurannya sedikit lebih besar. Shabu-shabu atau amfetamin digunakan sebagai stimultan.
Bahan-bahan yang digunakan orang untuk membuat shabu-shabu antara lain korek api, yodium, drano, minyak rem, efedrit, lighter fliud atau butana, asam khlorida, sodium hidroksida, ether atau asam belerang, dan ammonia anhidrat. Selain bahan-bahan tadi, ada juga orang yang membuat shabu-shabu dengan campuran asam baterai, pengencer cat, bensin, dan minyak tanah.
Ciri-ciri khusus pengguna shabu-shabu antara lain :
· Merasa gembira,
· Susah tidur,
· Wajah layu,
· Tekanan darah dan denyut jantung meningkat,
· Hilang rasa sedih, kecewa, kesal dan marah,
· Psikoaktif, tubuh terasa fit,
· Tulang dan gigi keropos, dan
· Kerusakan saraf mata dan otak.
¨ Kodein
Kodein adalah sejenis obat golongan opiat yang digunakan untuk mengobati nyeri sedang hingga berat, batuk (antitusif), diare, dan irritable bowel syndrome.
Gambar 8. Kodein
Efek samping yang umumnya terjadi akibat menggunakan kodein meliputi :
· eforia (perasaan senang atau bahagia),
· gatal-gatal,
· mual,
· muntah,
· mengantuk,
· mulut kering,
· miosis,
· hipotensi ortostatik,
· penahanan urin,
· depresi, dan
· sembelit.
¨ Sedatif-Hipnotik (Benzodizepin/BPZ)
Sedatif adalah obat penenang dan hipnotikum adalah obat tidur. Nama jalanan dari BDZ antara lain BK, Lexo, MG, Rohip, dan Dum. Cara pemakaiannya dapat diminum, disuntik inravena, dan melalui dubur. Ada yang meminum BDZ hingga lebih dari 30 tablet sekaligus. Namun dosis mematikan belum diketaui dengan pasti. BDZ bila dicampur dengan zat lain seperti alkohol, putaw bisa berakibat fatal karena menekan system pusat pernapasan. Umumnya dokter memberi obat ini untuk mengatasi kecemasan atau panik serta pengaruh tidur sebagai efek utamanya, misalnya aprazolam/Xanax/Alviz.
Efek samping yang terjadi karena penyalahgunaan BDZ antara lain:
· Terjadi gangguan konsentrasi dan keterampilan yang berkepanjangan.
· Menghilangkan kekhawatiran dan ketegangan.
· Perilaku aneh atau menunjukkan tanda kebingungan proses berpikir.
· Nampak bahagia dan santai.
· Bicara sambil menelan (slurred speech).
· Jalan sempoyongan.
· Tidak bisa memberi pendapat dengan baik.
¨ Inhalasia (Solven)
Inhalasia atau solven adalah uap dari bahan yang mudah dihirup. Contohnya isi korek api gas, cairan untuk dry cleaning, tinner, dan uap bensin. Umumnya digunakan oleh anak dibawah umur atau golongan kurang mampu/anak jalanan. Penggunaan menahun toluene yang terdapat pada lem dapat menimbulkan kerusakan fungsi otak.
Ciri-ciri pengguna inhalasia antara lain:
· Pada mulanya merasa sedikit terangsang.
· Tidak mampu membuat keputusan.
· Terlihat mabuk dan jalan sempoyongan.
· Mual, batuk dan bersin-bersin.
· Kehilangan nafsu makan.
· Perilaku menjadi agresif.
· Halusinasi.
· Bisa terjadi henti jantung.
Efek dari penggunaan inhalasia berlebihan antara lain:
· Menyebabkan kerusakan menetap syaraf otak.
· Keletihan otot.
· Gangguan irama jangtung.
· Radang selaput mata.
· Kerusakan hati dan ginjal.
· Gangguan pada darah dan sumsum tulang belakang.
· Terjadi kemerahan yang menetap di sekitar hidung dan tenggorokan.
Dapat terjadi kecelakaan yang menyebabkan kematian di antaranya karena jatuh, terbakar, tenggelam yang umumnya akibat intoksidasi/keracunan dan sering sendirian.
e. DAMPAK NEGATIF PENGUNAAN NARKOBA ( NAPZA )
Menurut definisi di atas, jelaslah bahwa narkotika, jika disalahgunakan, sangat membahayakan bagi kesehatan fisik dan mental manusia. Bahkan, pada pemakaian dengan dosis berlebih atau yang dikenal dengan istilah over dosis (OD) bisa mengakibatkan kematian. Namun sayang sekali, walaupun sudah tahu zat tersebut sangat berbahaya, masih saja ada orang-orang yang menyalahgunakannya.
f. DAMPAK POSITIF PENGGUNAAN NARKOTIKA
Di balik dampak negatif, narkotika juga memberikan dampak yang positif. Jika digunakan sebagaimana mestinya, terutama untuk menyelamatkan jiwa manusia dan membantu dalam pengobatan, narkotika memberikan manfaat bagi kehidupan manusia. Berikut dampak positif narkotika:
1. Opioid
Opioid atau opium digunakan selama berabad-abad sebagai penghilang rasa sakit dan untuk mencegah batuk dan diare.
Opioid atau opium digunakan selama berabad-abad sebagai penghilang rasa sakit dan untuk mencegah batuk dan diare.
2. Kokain
Daun tanaman Erythroxylon coca biasanya dikunyah-kunyah untuk mendapatkan efek stimulan, seperti untuk meningkatkan daya tahan dan stamina serta mengurangi rasa lelah.
Daun tanaman Erythroxylon coca biasanya dikunyah-kunyah untuk mendapatkan efek stimulan, seperti untuk meningkatkan daya tahan dan stamina serta mengurangi rasa lelah.
3. Ganja
Orang-orang terdahulu menggunakan tanaman ganja untuk bahan pembuat kantung karena serat yang dihasilkannya sangat kuat. Biji ganja juga digunakan sebagai bahan pembuat minyak.
Orang-orang terdahulu menggunakan tanaman ganja untuk bahan pembuat kantung karena serat yang dihasilkannya sangat kuat. Biji ganja juga digunakan sebagai bahan pembuat minyak.
